Refusals: Research Notes
Refusals can be used in response to requests/invitations/offers/suggestions (Beebe, Takahashi, & Uliss-Weltz, 1990)
American Refusals
Classification of American Graduate students rejection of academic advisors suggestions (Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford, 1991)
Direct
Hm. Not actually, Im avoiding it.
Well, Ive decided not to take...
Indirect
Excuse, reason, explanation
Thats the one that conflicts with what I have to take.
Yeah but...Statement of alternative
But anyway, I could look into the possibility of having that requirement waived...
What would I take in the summer if I didnt do that? (question form asking for an alternative)Acceptance that functions as a refusal
- Unspecific or indefinite replay: Lack of enthusiasm
That might be a solution.- Avoidance: Hedging
I dont know.- Avoidance: Postonement
Can I think about it? (question form)
Students rejections of their advisers suggestions in academic advising sessions is an out-of-status act which requires the use of status preserving strategies. It is important for students to take their own status into consideration and employ appropriate status congruent strategies (Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford, 1991). Native English speaking graduate students generally employ status preserving strategies and reject an advisors suggestion while maintaining the status balance.
Status preserving strategies include linguistic strategies (1 and 2 below) and nonlinguistic strategies (3 to 6).
- Appear congruent with interlocutors status
- Use downgraders
- Use appropriate timing
- Use appropriate frequency
- Be brief
- Use appropriate content
Giving an explanation is probably the most common strategy for rejection used by native- speaking American graduate students. The content should be appropriate and relatively brief. Here are some of the most common explanations the native speakers used.
Repetition of courses at the same institution (Ive taken that.)
Schedule conflicts (Thats the one that conflicts with what I have to take.)
Lack of availability (Yeah but in Spain they dont offer courses in the structure of language outside the European family.)
Ability (Yeah, but, the books are probably in German, and my German isnt too good.)
British Refusals
Over half of British refusals include an expression of regret and an excuse/reason. The most common combination of refusal strategies is found to be an expression of regret followed by an excuse or reason (30%). Other variations of reason and regret occur one fifth of the time (20%). The breakdown of the variations is:
- excuse/reason + expression of regret (19%)
- expression of regret + excuse/reason + promise or suggestions of future agreement (17%)
- expression of regret + excuse/reason + statement of negative willingness (8%)
Giving a reason is probably central to refusals in British English as in American English. A concrete and specific reason tends to be necessary. For instance, in response to a request for a ride home, specific reasons can include that the speaker was not going home directly and/or why s/he was not doing so. Some examples are:
- Im not going home straight away. Ive got to go meet someone first.
- Im not going straight home tonight. I was going to do some late night shopping.
- Ive got to pick some friends up from out of town straight after work.
- Im meeting my sister at the apartment.
In response to a small request, an expression of regret is likely to be offered (over 50%) to equals in particular (64%), rather than people of higher status (36%) or lower status (53%). For a larger request, apologies are sometimes offered.
Chinese Refusals
Substantive Refusals
Below is an example sequence of invitation-refusal. The refuser starts the refusal focusing on the trouble and cost the inviter will have to bear. Other oriented strategies are used, which indicates that the refusal is a ritual one. Then the inviter reinforces the invitation as is expected. This invitation/offer-refusal sequence is played out three times before acceptance of the invitation. (A is the inviter; B and C are the invited married couple.)
A: Look, there are still so many noodles left. Why dont you take some.
B: It is not necessary. You can save them for yourselves.
A: There are so many left; we cannot finish them all.
B: This is not right; weve already had a lot, and now we are going to take more.
A: Dont be polite. Since they taste good, why not take some. This kind of noodles cannot stay too long, or they become tasteless.
B: Then, we will stop being polite.
C: OK, we will only take some.
A: Take more; if you do not take more, we cannot eat them all.
B: You are really being too polite.
A: Take more.
Ikoma & Shimura (1993); Shimura (1995).
Native speakers of Japanese tend to use direct refusals less frequently than native speakers of American English. Japanese often do not complete their sentences, avoiding expressing direct refusal (chutosyuryoubun, omission of the end of the sentence or incomplete sentences). The most commonly used structures of incomplete refusal expressions are:
- Excuse/reason + te/de (23%)
Mou Xsan ni kashicyattete (Ive already lent it to X and ) - Excuse/reason + node/kara (18%)
Watashimo benkyo shinakucya ikenaikara (Because I have to study myself ) - Excuse/reason + ga/kedo+ne (8%)
- Excuse/reason + shi/shi + ne (8%)
- Negative response/connotation (8%)
Cyotto - Statement of positive opinion or agreement + kedo/ga (5%)
- Alternatives + ga/keredo+ mo (5%)
Most of these incomplete refusal expressions give an excuse or reason for the refusal (61%), present negative response/connotation (17%), suggest an alternative (7%) or state a positive opinion or agreement (3%). Some other strategies such as using idiomatic expressions or stating empathy are rarely used. The incomplete sentences typically occur at the end of the speech act of refusal (61%).
Almost one fourth of the Japanese refusal expressions (23%) are incomplete, whereas only 1% of American English refusal expressions are of this kind. Such incomplete sentences are more often used in Japanese when speaking to someone of higher status (54%) than of equal (15%) or lower status (31%).
Beebe, Takahashi, & Uliss-Weltz, 1990
In Japanese refusals, speakers tend to offer many more alternatives (Ill do X instead) and they do so more often than Americans speaking in English (also in Ikoma & Shimura, 1993). Japanese offer alternatives more often when they are higher in status than lower in the interaction.
When refusing a request of a higher status interlocutor, Japanese might use an expression of apology more often than Americans speaking in English. In a situation where a boss asks an employee to work late, approximately 95% of Japanese would include an expression of apology/regret in their refusals while only about 40% of Americans would.
When refusing an offer from a cleaning woman who suggests paying for a broken vase, Japanese speakers might add two additional elements that Americans would not use: a statement of philosophy (Things break anyway/This kind of thing happens) and a suggested future alternative (Be careful from now on). An American might just say, "Dont worry/Never mind. I know it was an accident," letting the woman off the hook.
Expressions used in refusal of suggestions in English and in Japanese as native languages seem to be similar, and therefore, there may be little likelihood that Japanese learners of English would violate the norms in English.
Spanish Refusals
Examples of Mexican Spanish Refusals
A Mexican employee refusing an invitation from his boss
Lamento decirle, y perdón por este comentario, pero no puedo ir
I am sorry to tell you this, and forgive me for what Im about to say, but I cant go.
A Mexican employee refusing a boss request to stay at work late
Sinceramente no creo que pueda quedarme dos horas más, es decir, tengo un horario establecido y ya después de ese tiempo, después de ese lapso, ya sinceramente no puedo, no puedo quedarme. Por eso fue precisamente que fue de repente que estoy en este horario. No obstante, más aún que yo vivo lejos, y dos horas después me quedaría completamente sin un modo de transporte para llegar a mi casa, y sinceramente, pagar un taxi pues está difícil y pues, la verdad, este, el trabajo es, este, para mis gastos personales, pero no creo que me alcance para pagar un taxi y más aún que vivo bastante retirado.
Honestly I dont think that I can stay two more hours, in other words, I have a fixed schedule and then after that time, after that period, I honestly cant, I cant stay. That was exactly why all of a sudden Im on this schedule. Even so, I also live far, and after two hours I would be completely without a means of transportation to get home, and honestly to pay a taxi is difficult and well, the truth, um, my job is, um, for my personal expenses, but I dont think it would be enough to pay the taxi and even more so because I live pretty far away.Me es imposible quedarme y pues, apoyarlo por esta vez; en serio discúlpeme.
It is impossible for me to stay and well, help you out this time; really, forgive me.
A Mexican Spanish speaker refusing a friends invitation to a birthday party
La neta, discúlpame.
Honestly, forgive me.
A Mexican Spanish Speaker refusing a classmate to lend the notes
En realidad, este, pues me da pena, pero pues, no puedo.
Really, um, well, I feel really bad, but well, I cant.Híjole, la verdad es que son puras notas y están en borrador; pero no traigo ahorita mi libreta.
Gosh, the truth is that they are just notes and they are only in draft form; but I dont have my notebook right now.
Stages of the Spanish Invitation-Refusal Sequence
Spanish invitations are often initially refused, leading to further invitations issued by the inviter. Therefore, a Spanish invitation-refusal sequence can be divided into two stages: (1) invitation-response followed by (2) insistence-response, and uses the following strategies.
In both invitation-response and the insistence-response stages, Head Acts and Supportive Moves are used. Head acts consist of strategies to refuse the invitation and help mitigate the effect of the utterance. They are characterized by hedges, downtoners, in-group markers, etc. Supportive moves accompany head acts after the refusal is made and modify the impact of the head act making it either more mitigating or imposing (Garcia, 1992, p. 210).
Invitation-Response
Head acts
The first segment of the Invitation-Response section, head acts,
includes the following strategies to refuse invitations.
Deference Politeness Strategies
Mitigated Refusal -- Refusals are often mitigated by hedges that diminish the negative effects that a direct refusal might have.
Este yo creo que no va a ser posible porque yo y mi mama ese día nos vamos a ir de viaje a Churín.
Uhh I think it isnt going to be posible because my mom and I are going on a trip to Churín today.Indefinite Reply -- Numerous replies are indefinite to avoid a direct refusal.
Ay, voy a hacer todo lo posible.
Oh. I will do everything I possibly can.Expression of Sorrow/regret -- In refusing an invitation, Spanish speakers often express regret or sorrow for not being able to accept the invitation. Such expressions sometimes function as indirect refusal which eventually lead to an explicit refusal.
A: el sábado, el sábado de - entre siete, ocho, ocho y media Saturday, Saturday from 7, 8, 8:30.
B: uy. qué mala suerte tengo Oh, what bad luck I have.
A: qué pasa? justo el sábado tenemos una reunión en la oficina todos los jefes de departamento Whats happening? As it turns out, Saturday all the department heads have a meeting at the office.
A: (h)
B: a las seis de la tarde y va a haber una comida at six pm and there will be a meal.
A: h ay oh
B: desgraciadamento no puedo dejar de ir Unfortunately I cant not go.
A: Cará! qué pena Oh dear! What a shameNon-verbal refusal -- Spanish speakers might rarely express refusals non-verbally by frowning and moving their head from right to left.
A: para ver si te das una escapadita pues para estar reunidos Lets see if you can just get away a bit so we can be togeher.
B: (frowning and moving his head)
A: no me vas a decir que tienes otro compromiso. ay! te chanc Dont tell me you have another commitment. Oh! Are you kidding me?
B: efectivamente ReallyReasons/Explanations
A: ay Anita, este, yo estoy ocupado el sábado. Oh, Anita, uhh, I am busy on Saturday.
B: ay. Oh
A: mis hermanos sí, encantado no? Pero me hubiera gustado asistir. (I wont be able to make it) but my sibblings will be there, isnt that delightful? But I would have been pleased to attend
B: ay. oh
A: tengo una situación. Es muy personal. I have a situation. Its very personal.
B: claro bueno, yo comprendo a veces no se puede pues. Sure, ok, I understand. Sometimes you just cant then.Solidarity Politeness Strategies
Inquiry to Third Party -- Some speakers might respond to the invitation by expressing the need to check with someone else such as spouse or another family member.
ya ya tengo que preguntarie primero a a mi esposo porque tú sabes lo difíícil que es eso
Direct Refusal -- Sometimes refusals of invitations are direct without hedges that would minimize any negative effects. Such unmitigated direct refusals are sometimes preceded by certain indicators of the refusals.
pero sabes qué? tengo una difícultad. No voy a poder asistir porque me he comprometido para asistir a otra reunión de otro tipo
But you know what? I have a problem. I wont be able to attend because Ive agreed to attend another get-together.Token Agreement/Acceptance -- Some might accept invitations even when refusals are necessary.
sí. yo sí puedo ir
yes. I am able to go.Criticism -- Some refusals may be made indirectly by criticizing the invitation, responding sarcastically to the invitation, or giving negative evaluation of the invitation.
A: Oye mira ya que te veo este sábado es el mi cumplea----ños y pienso hacer una pequeña reunión una cosa tú sabes de mis hermanas, mis hijas, y un grupo muy muy pequeño. Entonces yo te iba a llamar por teléfono. Ya que te encuentro entonces para ver si te das una escapadita el sábado es de siete, ocho, nueve, un ratito una cosa sencilla. El hecho es estar todos juntos un ratito no más.
Listen, look, now that I see you. This Saturday is my birthday and I am thinking of having a small get together something, you know, with my siblings, my daughters, and a real small group. So I was going to call you. Now that Ive run into you, so lets see if you can get away on Saturday at 7, 8, 9, for a moment, a simple thing. The idea is to have everyone together for just a little while, no more than that.
B: fierecita a little fiesta.
A: ah? Huh?
B: ES es fiestecita? Its its a little fiesta?
A: no-tomar una torta y una bebida no have some cake and a drink
B: ya ya ok, ok
A: y punto nada más. una cosa muy sencilla thats the point and nothing more something very simple
B: pero siempre la fiestecita van van con su musiquita y su bailecito but a little fiesta always comes with music and dance.
A: no no no no si mi casa el departamento es tan chiquitito. No hay sitio para nada,
no, no, no, no if in my house the department is real small. Theres no room for anything.
B: aparte aparte de eso tengo un compromiso y no puedo ir pero aside aside from that, I have an engagement and I cant go but...
A: ay tú con tus compromisos. oh, you with your engagements.
Supportive Moves
Some utterances follow after the refusal is made and further mitigate
or support the impact of the refusal. The strategies used are:
Deference Politeness Strategies
Expression of Sorrow -- After refusing the invatation some speakers express sorrow at not being able to accept the invitation.
ay mira justamente el domingo? Al día siguiente es el santo de mi madre y nos vamos a ir a Naplo y todo ( ) algo programado ( ) el sábado en la mañana porque es ( ) una hora ( ) así que nos vamos a pasar el fin de semana. ay qué lástima y si hubiera sabido esto bueno.
Oh, look, it happens to be on Sunday? The next day is my mothers saints day and we are going to Naples and have something scheduled for Saturday in the morning because its one hour so thats what were going to do on the weekend. Oh, what a pity and if Id known this, well Reason/Explanations
A: ay, mi amor, sabes qué? ahora me acabo de acordar que este sábado no voy a poder, Anita. Qué pe:na y cuánto tiempo hace que no nos veíamos. oh, my love, you know what? I just now remembered that this Saturday I wont be able to, Anita. What a pity, and how long its been since weve seen each other.
B: eso. Yo dije voy a llamar a Elenita con tiempo y todo. There it is. I said Id call Elenita ahead of time and all.
A: y ver a toda la familia pero este sábado en la noche va a ser no? And see the whole family but its going to be this Saturday evening, right?
B: ocho ocho y media si te puedes. 8, 8:30 if you can make it
A: sabes cuál es mi problema? que el viernes vamos a Huacho, toda la familia casi todos los fines de semana vamos a Huacho. You know what my problem is? On Friday we are going to Huacho almost every weekend the whole family goes to HuachoIndefinite Reply
así que vamos a procurar = So we are going to get
vamos a procurar Lets get Gratitude
te agradezco te agradezco la deferencia
thank you for your deferenceSolidarity Politeness Strategies
Expression of Willingness to Comply -- Spanish speakers sometimes express their desire to accept the invitation if it were possible after refusing the invitation.
ay mira justamente ?el domingo? al día siguiente es el santo de mi madre y nos vamos a ir a Naplo y todo ( ) algo programado ( ) el sábado en la mañana porque es ( ) una hora ( ) así que nos vamos a pasar el fin de semana. ay qué lástima y si hubiera sabido esto bueno
oh, look, it happens to be on Sunday? The next day is my mothers saints day and we are going to Naples and have something scheduled for Saturday in the morning because its one hour so thats what were going to do on the weekend. Oh, what a pity and if Id known this, well Positive Opinion/Well Wishing
A: si pero sabes que tengo una difícultad que no voy a poder asistir porque: me he comprometido para asistir a otra reunión de otro tipo
But you know what? I have a problem. I wont be able to attend because Ive agreed to attend another get-together
B: ay qué pena oh, what a shame
A: no es una fiesta, es otra clase de reunión it isnt a party, it is another kina of get together
B: ya ya comprendo. yeah, yeah, I understand.
A: así que [0.20] espero que te diviertas mucho so I hope you really enjoy yourselfPromise of Future Acceptance/Making Future Plans
sí pues en otra oportunidad encantada
yes indeed, Id be delighted another time.Promise to Comply/Try
para ver si lo puedo aplazar si no yo te ( )
lets see if I can postpone it. I I cant I will ( ) youDirect Refusal
a aparte aparte de eso tengo un compromiso y no puedo ir pero
Aside aside from this, I have an engagement and cant go but
Above passages from Garcia (1992), pp. 213-224.
Distribution of Male/Female Refusal Strategies at the Invitation-Response Stage
At the first stage of the refusal, Invitation-Response, Peruvian Spanish speakers often prefer deference politeness strategies that satisfy the interlocutors desire to be respected as head acts (65%) more often than solidarity politeness strategies that would satisfy the interlocutors desire to be liked and approved of (35%). This tendency was virtually the same for both males and females.
Male |
Female |
Total |
||||||
Deference Politeness: |
||||||||
Mititgated Refusal |
||||||||
Indefinite Reply |
||||||||
Expression of Sorrow |
||||||||
Non-Verbal Refusal |
||||||||
Reasons/Explanations |
||||||||
Total |
70% |
60% |
65% |
|||||
Solidarity Politeness: |
||||||||
Inquire to Third Party |
||||||||
Direct Refusal |
||||||||
Token Agreement/Acceptance |
||||||||
Criticism |
||||||||
Total |
30% |
40% |
35% |
Data from Garcia (1992), p. 217.
Peruvian Spanish speakers follow these initial head acts of their refusals with supportive moves. At this stage, deference strategies are used slightly more often (57%) than solidarity strategies (43%), but both types of strategies are generally mixed to satisfy both the inviters desire to be respected and to be liked and approved of. Female speakers seem to use deference politeness more often (62%) than solidarity politeness (37%) while males generally make equal use of both (50% and 50%).
Male |
Female |
Total |
||||||
Deference Politeness: |
||||||||
Expression of Sorrow |
||||||||
Reasons/Explanations |
||||||||
Indefinite Reply |
||||||||
Gratitude |
||||||||
Total |
50% |
62% |
57% |
|||||
Solidarity Politeness: |
||||||||
Expression of Willingness to Comply |
||||||||
Positive Opinion/Well Wishing |
||||||||
Promise to Comply in the Future/Making Future Plans |
||||||||
Promise to Comply/Try |
||||||||
Direct Refusal |
||||||||
Total |
50% |
37% |
43% |
Data from Garcia (1992), pp. 224.
Insistence-Response
After the initial Invitation-Refusal stage, Peruvian Spanish speakers often go into a second stage, the Insistence-Response. When the inviter requests the refuser to make an effort to comply with the invitation, the refuser typically responds with one of the following strategies:
Head Acts
Deference Politeness Strategies
Mitigated Refusal
Solidarity Politeness Strategies
Acceptance/Token Agreement -- Most speakers tend to either accept the invitation or made a token agreement to comply with the invitation after the inviters insistence.
Promise to Comply/Try -- After the inviters insistence, some speakers might say that they will make an effort to attend.
Direct Refusal
Supportive Moves
Deference Strategies
Gratitude
A: de todas maneras tú sabes que si hay un imprevisto te das una escapadita
in any case, you know that if theres any change in plans, do get away
B: ah ya regio (Token Agreement) oh, yeah, great
A: chau, cariños por tu casa, chau bye, send my expressions of affection to your family, bye
B: gracias por la invitación ah? (Gratitide) thanks for the invitationReasons/Explanations
A: no creo que pueda I dont think I can (Migitaged Refusal)
yo ahora estoy viviendo lejos de tu casa (reasons/explanations)Im now living far from your house
B: eso precisely
A: y no creo en el transporte (Reasons/Explanations) and Im not sure about transportation
B: Eso todo se complica todo en la vida. Se ha vuelto muy complicado. That complicates things in life. Its become very complicated.Expression of Pessimism
A: si por una casualidad no vas para ver o si va Anita y entonces la recoges y te das una escapadita
if by chance you might give it a try or if Anita comes, and she picks you up, and it gives you a way to slip out
B: haré el intento (Promise to Comply/Try) I will do what I can
A: aunque será imposible (Expression of Pessimism) even if its impossibleIndefinite Reply
A: ay en serio no puedes no? Oh, seriously, you cant?
B: no no (Direct Refusal) no, no
A: bueno mira si te ves libre del compromiso o que se pospone o cualquier cosa para ver si te das una escapadita pues
good, look, if you find yourself free from that engagement or if its postponed or whatever to see if you can get away, then
B: sí, sé yes, I know
A: un ratito...si se presentara la oportunidad pero. a moment, if the opportunity arises, but
B: Claro sure
A: es difícil its difficult
B: bueno pues. nada nada es imposible, si puedes te das un saltito ya? good, then. Nothing, nothing is imposible, if you can, then hop over, ok?
A: vamos a ver, vamos a ver, vamos a ver (Indefinite Reply) Well see, well see, well seeApology
A: no te olvides. Pues gusto en verte dont forget. So its been a pleasure seeing you
B: mil disculpas más bien Im really very sorry
A: chaucito. qué ocurrencia, chau bye bye, what an accident, byeSolidarity Strategies
Making Future Plans
A: bueno si por una casualidad se pospo:ne algo y todo te das una vueltecita por la casa. Estaría
good, if by change something is postponed, pass by the house. I will be there.
B: ya, Anita, comprendo Ok, Anita, I understand.
A: encantada delighted
B: este, te estoy llamando por teléfono uh, Im phoning you.Promise to Comply/Try -- Spanish speakers sometimes suggest that if the reason for their refusal changed, they would try to accept the invitation.
A: mira, si cualquier cosa hay algún inconveniente y no vas y todo, ya tú me avisas o vas no más a la casa que con todo gusto, un ratito aunque sea te das un saltito ya?
look, some inconvenience arises and you dont go, then you are most welcome to let me know or just come to my house, even if its just for a moment, hop on over, ok?
B: si acaso se suspende la reunión if by chance they cancel the meeting
A: Claro, encantada Sure, delighted
B: que tengo programada, en ese caso voy In case they cancel the meeting, I have planned to come (to yours)
A: Ya encantada OK. Delighted
B: con mucho gusto with great pleasure
Above passages from Garcia (1992), pp. 227-232.
Distribution of Male/Female Refusal Strategies at the Insistence-Response Stage
Approximately two-thirds of the Peruvian Spanish speakers follow their refusal when the inviter insists on the invitation and go into the second stage of the refusal. The vast majority of speakers, both male and female, generally use solidarity politeness strategies (92%). This may be due to the insistence itself, which expresses solidarity between the interlocutors. It also assumes familiarity in the relationship that allows imposition and the refuser might simply respond in kind (Garcia, 1992, p. 229).
Male |
Female |
Total |
||||||
Deference Politeness: |
||||||||
Mitigated Refusal |
||||||||
Total |
14% |
0% |
8% |
|||||
Solidarity Politeness: |
||||||||
Acceptance/Token Agreement |
||||||||
Promise to Comply/Try |
||||||||
Unmitigated Refusal |
||||||||
Total |
86% |
100% |
92% |
Data from Garcia (1992), p. 229.
The last segment of the refusal more often includes deference politeness strategies (74%) than solidarity strategies (26%). This tendency was similar between male and female speakers. However, most female speakers tend to accept the invitation (albeit with an indefinite reply or with token agreement), while some male speakers might prefer to be more direct in their refusal (Garcia, 1992, p. 233).
Male |
Female |
Total |
||||||
Deference Politeness: |
||||||||
Gratitude |
||||||||
Reasons/Explanations |
||||||||
Expression of Pessimism |
||||||||
Indefinite Reply |
||||||||
Apology |
||||||||
Total |
78% |
70% |
74% |
|||||
Solidarity Politeness: |
||||||||
Making Future Plans |
||||||||
Promise to Comply/Try |
||||||||
Total |
22% |
30% |
26% |
Data from Garcia (1992), p. 233.
In Peruvian Spanish, it may be culturally expected that the inviter insists on the invitation and that the interlocutor accepts. Not insisting may even indicate rudeness or lack of sincerity. Similarly, not accepting the invitation might be considered an offense (Garcia, 1992).
References
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Beebe, L. M., Takahashi, T, & Uliss-Weltz, R. (1990). Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In R. Scarcella, E. Andersen, S. D. Krashen (Eds.), On the Development of Communicative Competence in a Second Language (pp. 55-73). New York: Newbury House.
Chen, X., Ye, L., & Zhang, Y. (1995). Refusing in Chinese. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as a Native and Target Language (pp. 119-163). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press.
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