Selected Annotated Bibliography:
Korean Learner Language

Yunseong Cheon, CARLA, University of Minnesota, Dec. 19, 2011

A note on organization:
Within each topic area (e.g. tense-aspect), all research studies focused on that topic are listed in chronological order, beginning with the oldest and ending with the most recent, assuming that each research study entails and builds on the findings of previous studies.

Tense - Aspect

이 연구는 학습자의 시제표현 사용에 모국어가 미치는 영향을 조사하였다. 출현 빈도가 높은 시제 표현 '-는1-' (관형형 어미), '-는2-'(선어말어미), '-았-', '-을-', '-은-', '-을 것-' 의 6개 항목에 대하여 중국어와 일본어를 모국어로 하는 한국어 학습자들의 시제표현 사용 양상을 분석하였다. 각 언어별로 30명씩 모두 60명의 피험자를 대상으로 하여, 시제표현 문법항목의 발화가 가능한 말하기 과제를 녹음한 후, 함축적 평가(DeCamp, 1971)를 이용하여 발달 단계를 조사하였다. 일본인 학습자들에게는 과거 표현이 가장 어렵고 관형형 현재 시제 표현이 비교적 덜 어려운 것으로 분석되었다. 일본인 학습자들이 함축도표 분석에서 먼저 습득한 것으로 나타난 표현부터 나열하면 '-을 것-', '-는2-', '-는1-', '-을-', '-은-', '-았-'의 순서를 보였다. 중국인 학습자들에게는 과거 표현이 어렵고 관형형 표현 중에서는 현재 시제 표현이 가장 어려운 것으로 분석되었다. 중국인 학습자들이 함축도표 분석에서 먼저 습득한 것으로 나타난 표현부터 나열하면, '-을 것-', '-는2-', '-을-', '-은-', '-는1-', '-았-'의 순서를 보였다. 이러한 결과는 대체적으로 시제표현 문법 항목 습득 순서는 모국어의 영향을 덜 받지만, 관형형 습득 순서는 일본어와 중국어 화자의 경우 모국어의 영향을 배제할 수 없음을 시사한다.

Lee analyzed the usage patterns of Korean tense expressions produced by Chinese speaking learners and Japanese speaking learners of Korean attending an intensive Korean program at a Korean university. The most frequently used tense expressions, '-nun 1-'(modifying form), '-nun 2-' (verbal pre-ending), '-ass-', '-ul-', '-un-', '-ul kes-', were selected as target items, and 30 learners from each NL group participated in the study. Modifying forms were included in tense expressions because tenses are marked in modifying forms in Korean. The participants were given general interview questions and guided picture description tasks. Their performances were audio-recorded and analyzed using implicational scaling (DeCamp, 1971). For Japanese speakers, the results showed that past tense expressions were relatively inaccurate, and present tense modifying forms were comparatively more accurate. The accuracy order of Japanese learners on the implicational scale was '-ul kes-', '-nun 2-', '-nun 1-', '-ul-', '-un-', '-ass-'. For Chinese speakers, the past tense expressions were also relatively inaccurate and the present tense modifying form was most inaccurate among modifying expressions. The accuracy order of Chinese learners on the implicational scale was '-ul kes-', '-nun 2-', '-ul-', '-un-', '-nun 1-', '-ass-'. The resaercher concluded that L1 had relatively little influence on the accuracy order of general tense expressions and more influence on the accuracy order of modifying forms.

이 연구는 영어를 모국어로 하는 한국어 학습자 16명 (교포 학습자 9명 포함)을 대상으로 하여 시제표현 문법 항목 습득을 측정하였다. 측정 항목은 '는1(관형형어미)', '았(과거시제)', '을(미래시제)', '는2 (선어말어미)' 네 가지이다. 피험자들은 문법 시험, 인터뷰 시험 과제를 수행하였다. 본 실험 이전에 개인의 주의 집중 특이성이 자료에 영향을 살펴보기 위해 잠입도형검사가 보조적으로 시행되었다. 문법 시험은 언어 형태에 초점을 둔 사지선다형으로 25 문제가 주어졌고, 인터뷰는 일반적인 질문과 함께 그림을 보고 면접자의 질문에 응답하는 형식으로 진행되었다 . 인터뷰 시험에서는 학습자들이 '는2'를 가장 많이 습득했고, '을-는1-았'의 순서로 정확도가 낮아졌다. 문법 시험에서는 '았'을 가장 쉽게 습득했고 '을-는1-는2'의 순서로 습득이 어려웠다. 이러한 결과는 학습자의 문법 지식과 한국어 산출 능력이 일치하지 않음을 보여준다.

Lee investigated the use of four tense expressions used by 16 Korean L2 learners including 9 heritage learners attending the same university in Korea. The target grammatical items were '-nun-(modifying form)', '-ass- (past tense marker)', '-ul-(prospective marker)', and '-nun-(verbal pre-ending)'. The learners took a multiple-choice grammar test and performed guided oral tasks. Prior to the tests, the Embedded Figure Test was administered to measure the effect of individual learners' field-dependence traits on the results. Twenty-five multiple-choice questions focused on the correct grammatical form were given in the grammar test, and 6 guided picture description tasks were administered in oral interviews. On the interview, the learners accurately produced the tense expressions in the following order from most accurate to least accurate: '-nun-(verbal pre-ending)', '-ul-', '-nun-(modifying form)', and '-ass-(past tense marker)'. On the grammar test, the accuracy order was '-ass-', '-ul-', '-nun-(modifying form)', and '-nun-(verbal pre-ending)'. The results demonstrate that knowledge of Korean tense expressions as measured on a grammar test is not congruent with accuracy in use of these same expressions in speech production.

이 연구는 한국어 학습자 말뭉치(조철현 외, 2002)를 이용하여 미래시제 문법형태인 '-겠-'과 '-을 것'의 용법별 발달순서를 조사하였다. 함축정 평가 방법을 이용하여 일본어, 중국어, 영어의 언어권별로 중간언어 발달 순서를 대조분석하였다. 세 언어권 학습자 모두 '-겠-'을 '-을 것'보다 쉽게 습득하는 경향이 있었으며, 완료추측의 '-겠-'과 단순미래 '-을 것', 가능성의 '-겠-', 약한 의지의 '-을 것'의 용법은 세 언어권 모두 동일하게 습득이 어려웠다. 영어권 학습자는 미래시제 문법형태 중에서 의지의 '-겠-'을 제일 먼저 습득하였다. 일본어권 학습자는 형태적으로 '-겠-'을 쉽게 습득하고 '-을 것'의 습득은 어려워하였으나, 중국어권 학습자는 먼저 약한 추측의 '-을 것'을 쉽게 습득하는 것으로 나타났다.

Kim investigated the accuracy orders for the prospective tense forms, '-keyss-' and '-ul kes-' using the Korean Learner Corpus (Cho et al., 2002) which is composed of written data of adult KSL learners. The researcher utilized an implicational evaluation scale, and compared and analyzed the interlanguage development of learners with different native languages: Japanese, Chinese, and English. Learners with all three native language backgrounds showed a tendency to produce '-keyss-' more accurately than '-ul kes-'. The most challenging forms for all these learners were presumptive perfect '-keyss-', simple future '-ul kes-', possibility '-keyss-', and weak willingness '-ul kes-.' There was evidence of some native-language influence. English-speaking learners were most accurate in producing willingness '-keyss-' compared to other future tense forms. Japanese-speaking learners were most accurate producing '-keyss-' morphologically, but '-ul kes-' was less accurate. Chinese-speaking learners produced weak conjecture '-ul kes-' most accurately.

Kim predicted that L2 learners would show difficulty identifying causative and inchoative verbs when their L1 and L2 mark those verbs differently. Causative and inchoative verbs are used respectively in transitive and intransitive constructions without morphological marking in English (e.g., John opened the door/The door opened), whereas the alternation is marked morphologically in Korean (e.g. Sangho-ka aki-lul wus-ki-ess-ta [Sangho made the baby laugh] /aki-ka wus-ess-ta [The baby laughed]). Based on this difference, the researcher compared the L2 acquisition of the causative and inchoative alternation in English and Korean. The KSL participants were 30 English-speaking learners in Korea. The learner group was heterogeneous in terms of age, years of learning Korean, and years of living in Korea. An hour-long picture-identification task was used. Learners were asked to identify the grammaticality of each sentence based on a given picture. KSL learners had trouble with the transitive construction in the causative pattern (e.g., nok-i-ta 'melt', el-li-ta 'freeze', etc.), with few individual differences. The researcher argued that results occurred because the verbs used in the constructions show a bias towards prototypical transitive verbs.

Strauss and Ahn developed instructional materials for two Korean completive constructions, 'V-a/e pelita' and 'V-ko malta' using a conceptualization-based approach. First, they analyzed a 300,000-word corpus, various Internet segments, and oral data from television programs, telephone conversations, religious sermons, etc. The corpus contained relatively high frequencies of the two completive constructions. The researchers extracted the target constructions and analyzed the discursive patterns in order to draw out core meanings of the target constructions. 'V-a/e pelita' auxiliary emphasizes the meaning of finality with totality, and 'V-ko malta' auxiliary expresses finality with resistance or struggle. Based on the analyses, workbook materials including grammar exercises and listening activities were developed and used in an intensive Korean language program at an American university. In the experimental phase, 10 native Korean speaking teachers and 25 non-heritage learners participated. In the final section of the workbook, the learners were asked to compose two sentences for each target construction. Each sentence was scored from 0 to 10 based on grammatical correctness and pragmatic appropriateness. After they were given instructions using the pedagogical materials, the learners attained the most accuracy for the 'V-a/e pelita' auxiliary and less for 'V-ko malta' and 'V-a/e peliko malta.'

Lee and Kim examined the acquisition of the Korean progressive marker, '-ko iss-' and the resultative '-a iss-' using a picture identification task and a controlled description task. The participants were beginning and intermediate level learners of Korean in two major universities in the United States. The hypothesis, based on the Congruence Principe (Andersen, 1993) and One-to-One Principle (Andersen, 1989; Clark, 1987), was that progressive '-ko iss-' would be acquired before resultative '-ko iss-' and '-a iss-'. The Congruence Principle predicts the tendency to use imperfective for activity verbs and past or perfective for achievement verbs. The One-to-One Principle predicts that learners prefer to map one form to one meaning or function, so they will prefer to learn a new meaning through a new form rather than add an additional meaning to a known form. The results of the sentence interpretation task indicate that the development of progressive '-ko iss-' significantly preceded resultative '-ko iss-' and '-a iss-', and that '-a iss-' might overtake resultative '-ko iss-' but there were no significant difference between resultatives '-a iss-' and '-ko iss-'. On the guided production task, '-a iss-' was more frequently used than '-ko iss-' for resultative meaning as well as '-ko iss-' for progressive meaning. This was interpreted to mean that '-ko iss-' is not required for marking progressive meaning. The researchers concluded that English speaking learners of Korean acquire the progressive meaning of '-ko iss-' before its resultative meaning, and that the acquisition sequence of '-a iss-' and '-ko iss-' for resultative meaning was yet to be determined.

이 연구는 한국어 학습자들의 진행형 '-고 있다' 사용 양상을 연구하였다. 한국어의 '-고 있다'는 진행과 상태지속의 의미가 있으며, 현재의 행동이나 동작을 표현할 때 선택적으로 사용될 수 있다는 특징이 있다. 연구 대상은 런던대에서 한국어를 수강하고 있는 초급 학습자 20명과 고급 학습자 20명이며, 학습자들의 모국어 분포는 영어(29), 불어(3), 일본어(3), 독일어(2), 중국어(1), 네덜란드어(1), 베트남어(1)이다. 실험 도구로서는 모국어 화자를 대상으로 한 모의 실험에서 75% 이상이 '-고 있다'를 사용한 문장을 선택하여 30개의 정답 유도 문제와 20개의 교란형 문제를 포함한 50개의 문장 완성형 과제를 사용하였다. 실험 이후에 초급과 고급 각 2명의 학습자를 대상으로 진행형과 단순형 사용에 대한 인식과 한국어의 동사 형태에 따른 선택적 결합 특성에 대한 인식, 한국어와 영어의 차이에 대한 인식에 대하여 인터뷰를 진행하였다. 실험 결과 초급과 고급 학습자 모두 기동적 성취 동사(감정, 인지 동사) 와 상태 지속의 의미로 사용된 착용 동사에서 '-고 있다' 사용이 낮게 나타났다. 시상가설(Shirai, 1991; Shirai & Andersen, 1996)과 부합하는 결과로는, '-고 있다'의 동작 동사와 완성 동사와의 사용이 절정적 성취동사와의 사용보다 먼저 습득되는 것으로 나타났다. 한편, 시상 가설과는 달리 '-고 있다'의 동작동사와의 사용이 완성 동사와의 사용보다 늦게 습득되었다. 연구자들은 주요 한국어 교재에서 대부분 '-고 있다' 형이 동작 동사와 결합하는 예만 제시하고 있고 기동적 성취 동사와의 사용이 한 번도 언급되지 않는 점을 지적하며, 학습자들이 '-고 있다'가 다양한 동사와의 결합 사용에 노출될 필요가 있음을 제안하였다.

Brown and Yeon examined when and how Korean L2 learners use the progressive marker '-ko issta.' '-ko issta' can be used in both continuous and progressive aspects, and it can be omitted with activity verbs. The participants were 40 learners of Korean (20 at the beginning and 20 at the advanced level) at the University of London; their native languages were English (29), French (3), Japanese (3), German (3), Chinese (1), Dutch (1), and Vietnamese (1). The researchers used a cloze-style test including 30 target sentences and 20 distractors. Sentences where 75% of Korean native speakers used '-ko issta' in the pilot study were selected as target sentences. After the experimental test, two participants each drawn from the beginning and advanced levels were selected to interview regarding the usage of progressive and present verb forms, the optional use of the progressive marker with activity verbs, and the difference between English and Korean progressive markers. Results showed that the participants in both levels used '-ko issta' much less frequently than Korean native speakers with inchoative achievement verbs (cognitive/emotive verbs) and with verbs of wearing for continous meaning. These results were consistent with the aspect hypothesis (Shirai, 1999; Shirai & Andersen, 1996) in that the use of '-ko issta' with activity verbs and accomplishment verbs precedes its use with climatic achievement verbs. However, other results did not match the aspect hypothesis: these participants' use of '-ko issta' with activity verbs appeared at a later stage than with accomplishment verbs. The researchers pointed out that major Korean textbooks present the use of '-ko issta' mostly with activity verbs, but not with inchoative achievement verbs. They suggest that Korean learners need to be exposed to the use of '-ko issta' with a wider range of verb types.

Relative clauses

O'Grady, Lee and Choo investigated the comprehension of relative clauses by 53 beginning- and intermediate-level English-speaking learners of Korean at the university level in the U.S. The participants were asked to designate the correct picture after listening to sentences which included relative clauses. Results showed that subject relative clauses were more accurately understood than object relative clauses. The results are consistent with the Structural Distance Hypothesis, which states that the difficulty of a relative clause is determined by the depth of the gap corresponding to the relativized element. The finding also matches the Korean L1 developmental sequence for relative clause acquisition.

Jeon and Kim examined whether the development of head-external relative clauses in Korean as a foreign language (KFL) follows Keenan and Comrie's (1977) noun phrase accessibility hierarchy (NPAH); it also examined the interrelation of the development of head-external relative clauses with head-internal relative clauses. The NPAH assumes that the availability of relative clauses follows the order subject > object > dative > oblique in all languages. This study focused on the use of subject and object relative clauses in an elicited oral production task. The participants were 40 native or near-native English speaking learners of Korean at an American university, including 34 heritage speakers of Korean. The participants were divided into four proficiency groups based on pretest scores. After completing the production task, a posttest and a delayed posttest were administered. The learners were asked to describe where a circle was drawn in given pictures; three different pictures were used for this phase. The test results showed that subject relative clauses were more likely to be used in the target contexts than object relative clauses in the head-external construction. In addition, head-external constructions were more frequently used than head-internal constructions. The results suggested that object relative clauses are more difficult than subject relative clauses. The researchers argued that the second language acquisition of Korean, a SOV language, follows the NPAH.

이 연구는 중국인 한국어 학습자 작문에 나타난 관계절의 사용 양상을 조사하였다. 중급 학습자들에게 두 가지 중 한 가지 주제를 선택하여 40 동안 작문을 하게 하였다. 학습자 43명의 작문에 나타난 124어절의 관계절에서 주절을 형성하는 관계절 (81어절, 65.3%)과 직접목적어를 형성하는 관계절 (27어절, 21.8%)이 가장 많이 나타났다. 주어가 관계화된 주격 관계절은 96어절 (77.4%), 목적격 관계절은 19어절 (15.3%)로 나타났다. 한국어교재에서는 관계절 사용과 비교해 보았을 때, 한국어교재에서는 주절 관계절이 대다수였으나 간접목적절, 보어절 등 다양한 관계절이 제시되었다. 또한, 주격 관계절의 사용이 49.1%로 다양한 관계절이 제시되었다.

Jo investigated how Chinese learners of Korean use relative clauses in writing. Intermediate level participants were asked to choose between two given topics and compose a passage for 40 minutes. In 43 participants' compositions, relative clauses were found in 124 eojeols. Relative clauses were most frequently used in the positions of subject (81 eojeols, 65.3%) and direct object (27 eojeols, 21.8%). Subject relative clauses where the subject becomes the head noun were most frequently used in 96 eojeols (77.4%), and object relative clauses were used in 19 oejeols (15.3%). Various relative clause types were presented in Korean textbooks; in these books, relative clauses were mostly used in the place of subject (with a frequency of 49.1%), but they were also used in the place of direct object, complement, etc.

Lee-Ellis examined relative clause (RC) production by 21 Korean heritage learners and 13 Korean native speakers at the University of Maryland. Due to subject-object asymmetry in relativization in Korean, either the subject relative clause (SRC) or the object relative clause (ORC) is expected to be relatively hard to process. Also, asymmetry is expected to disappear when arguments are topicalized. Gap position (subject vs. object), animacy (± animate), and topic-hood (canonical vs. topicalized) were examined in a laboratory setting using a picture description task with six token pictures. Significant differences between learners and native speakers were not found in the group data. The individual data analsyis showed three possible patterns: an SRC advantage, an ORC advantage, or no asymmetry. Relatively high proficiency learners showed an SRC advantage and no asymmetry in the topicalized condition, whereas relatively low proficiency learners showed an ORC advantage in both canonical and topicalized conditions. Effects of different task demands on RC processing are discussed.

Particles

이 연구는 초급과 중급 영어권 한국어 학습자의 의사소통 작문과 자유 작문 자료에 나타난 조사 사용의 오류를 분석하고 교육 방법을 제시하였다. 초급 155명, 중급 101명의 총 31,209어절을 분석 대상으로 하였다. 한국어 주격 조사 '-이/가'의 경우, 초급 학습자는 50% 정도의 정확도를 보였으며, 오류의 대부분은 '-이/가'를 누락시킨 것이었다. 중급 학습자는 '-이/가' 사용에 있어서 62% 정도의 정확성을 보였는데, 초급에 비하여 누락 오류는 감소한 반면 '-을/를'과 '-은/는'으로의 대치 오류가 약간 증가하였다. '-을/를'의 대치 오류는 영어에서는 타동사로 쓰이지만 한국어에서는 형용사로 쓰이는 서술어에서 많이 나타났다. 한편, '-은/는'의 초급에서 75%의 정확도를 나타내었으나 중급에서 오히려 정확도가 약간 감소하였다. '-은/는'의 오류로는 '-이/가'로의 대치가 가장 많이 나타났고, 중급 학습자가 초급학습자보다 두 배 이상의 대치 오류를 보였다. 이러한 오류는 중급에서 점차 복잡한 문장 구조를 사용하게 되면 학습자가 '-이/가'와 '-은/는'의 선택에 혼란을 겪기 때문으로 해석되었다.

Kim and Nam analyzed errors in subject and topic markers in written Korean learner language, as produced by English speaking university-level learners in Korea. Meaning-focused writing was collected from 155 beginning and 101 intermediate level learners. Proficiency level was assumed by the level of Korean courses that they were taking. A total of 31,209 syllables were analyzed in this study. Beginning learners showed 50% accuracy in using subject markers '-i/ka'; most errors involved dropping these markers in obligatory context. Intermediate learners showed 62% accuracy for '-i/ka'; they dropped these markers less frequently in obligatory context; in addition, intermediate learners slightly increased their substitution of '-un/nun'(topic markers) or '-ul/lul'(object markers) for '-i/ka'(subject markers). Their substitution of '-ul/lul' (object markers) for '-i/ka'(subject markers) was particularly noted for predicates that are transitive verbs in English. Beginning learners showed 74% of accuracy in using '-un/nun'(topic markers), while intermediate learners' accuracy rate in use of these slightly decreased, with the most frequent errors involving the substitution of '-i/ka' for '-un/nun' (the rate of this type of error doubled at the intermediate level). The researchers conclude that this increase occurs due to learners' use of more complex sentences at the intermediate level.

Kim investigated whether adult heritage and non-heritage learners of Korean make different errors with particles in their writing. The participants (11 heritage and 10 non-heritage) were undergraduate students enrolled in intermediate level Korean in an American university. The non-heritage learners' native languages were English, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese. A total of 86 compositions by heritage learners and 87 compositions by non-heritage learners were collected. There were no statistical differences between the two groups of learners in either their overall rate of error or their error patterns in particle usage. The most frequent particle error type for both groups was the substitution of incorrect case particles for correct ones (e.g. the substitution of nominative particles '-i/ka' with accusative particles '-ul/lul').

이 연구는 보편성의 개념에 초점을 맞추어 영어, 일어, 중어권 한국어 학습자가 보이는 공통적인 조사 오류 양상을 추출하였다. 연구 자료로는 조철현 외 (2002)의 세 언어권 학습자의 초, 중, 고급 작문자료가 사용되었다. 대치 오류에서 세 언어권에서 빈도 1, 2위에 드는 조사는 '을/를'과 '이/가'로 나타났는데, '이/가'가 쓰일 자리에 '을/를'을, 또는 '을/를'이 쓰일 자리에 '이/가'를 잘못 쓰고 있는 예가 많았다. 또한 '에'가 쓰일 자리에 '에서'를, '에서'가 쓰일 자리에 '에'를 쓰는 대치의 오류가 많이 나타났다. 누락 오류에서는 '-이/가 있다' 구문을 사용할 때 '이/가'를 사용하지 않는 경우가 가장 많이 나타났는데, 이는 초급에서 '이/가'를 생략하여 발화했던 것이 굳어진 것으로 볼 수도 있을 것이다. 장소나 시간 명사와 결합하는 경우에 조사 '에'가 누락되는 예가 많이 나타났다. 또한 조사 오류유형과 상관없이 '에서'의 누락은 발견되지 않았다. 대치 오류를 예방하기 위해서는 초급 이후도 지속으로 조사에 대한 교육을, 누락 오류를 예방하기 위해서는 구어체와 문어체를 함께 교육할 것을 제안하였다.

Kim and Lee investigated common errors with markers that Korean learners make in beginning through advanced levels, using the Korean language corpus (Cho et al., 2002) which is composed of written data from adult KSL learners in Korea. The researchers focused on three groups of learners with different native languages: English, Japanese and Chinese. Results showed that the most frequent error across all three groups involved interchanging '-ul/lul'(object marker) and '-i/ka'(subject marker). Another frequent replacement error across groups was interchanging '-ey' and '-eyse'. The most frequent omission errors involved omitting '-i/ka;' this was due the frequent omission of subject markers, something native speakers of Korean commonly do in informal speech. All three groups of learners also frequently omitted '-ey' when it was combined with place and time expressions. The omission of '-eyse' was not found at any level or by any native speaker group. The researchers suggest that instruction on markers needs to be continued in advanced Korean classes in order to prevent replacement errors, and that colloquial and written forms of Korean should be taught together in order to prevent omission errors.

이 연구는 학습자 3명 (루마니아 1명, 필리핀 2명)의 쓰기에 나타난 조사 오류를 분석하였다. 학습자들은 전공 대학원 과목을 영어로 수강하면서 지속적으로 한국어 수업을 수강하여 한국어 능력은 중상급 정도이다. 수업의 쓰기 자료와 한국어 일기, 주제 작문, 주제 발표문, 전자우편 등 82건의 쓰기 자료를 수집하여 오류 판정을 한 후 빈도 분석을 실시하였다. {이/가}의 경우 생략 오류가 가장 많았고 {을/를}과의 대치 오류가 뒤를 이었다. {은/는}은 {이/가} 또는 {을/를}과의 대치 오류가 생략 오류보다 많았다. 특히, 학습자들은 겹문장의 주어 표지에서 {이/가}를 {은/는}으로 대치하는 오류를 가장 많이 보였다. 학습자들의 모국어의 영향은 나타나지 않았다. 이 연구는 복문을 학습한 이후에 {이/가}의 정확한 사용을 대해 학문 목적의 글쓰기 교재에서 소개할 것을 제안하였다.

Kim and Kang analyzed particle errors in written Korean produced by three graduate students (one Romanian and two Filipinos). The participants were taking their major courses in English along with Korean language courses. Their Korean language ability was estimated to be at the high-intermediate level. The participants' class writings, journals, compositions, presentation scripts, and emails, a total of 82 entries, were collected for data analysis. Errors were identified and calculated by their frequency. Results showed that, in the case of {i/ga}, omission errors were most frequent, and then substitution errors with {eul/leul} followed. In the case of {eun/neun}, substitution errors with {i/ga} or {eul/leul} were more frequent than omission errors. In particular, the participants produced most errors in {i/ga} by replacing them with {eun/nuen} in subject position in complex sentences. The native languages of the paricipants did not seem to affect the findings. The researchers suggested that the correct usage of {i/ga} needs to be introduced after complex sentence structures are presented in textbooks on writing for academic purposes.

Demonstratives

이 연구는 영어권 한국어 학습자의 시험과 작문에 나타난 지시어 오류를 지시어가 쓰이는 구조에 따라 분석하였다. 접속사 중에서는 모국어와 목표어가 일대일 대응이 되지 않는 '그래서'의 오류율이 높았다. '지시어 + 관형어 + 명사' 구성의 어색한 한국어 표현과 지시사 '그' 나 '그런' 대신 '이'나 '이런'을 많이 사용하는 것은 모국어의 영향으로 분석되었다.

Yang analyzed errors on Korean demonstratives in a written corpus produced by English-speaking Korean learners at a Korean university. Expressions including demonstratives were categorized as conjunctions, demonstrative noun phrases, demonstrative verbs, and demonstrative pronouns. Among conjunctions, learners made more errors in 'kurayse [so that]'; this might be due to the lack of a counterpart construction in English. In noun phrases, the learners frequently produced awkward Korean constructions such as 'demonstrative + modifier + noun' and interchanging 'i [this]' with 'ku [that]' or 'ku' with 'i'. The researcher argued that this could be due to transfer from the learners' L1, English.

Vocabulary and semantics

영어, 중국어, 일본어, 러시아어권 학생들의 작문과 시험 자료에 나타난 오류를 분류하고 특징을 분석하였다. 총 103771어절 중에서 18208 오류 어절을 분석하였다. 학습자의 오류에 영향을 줄 수 있는 변인으로 모국어와 성별, 학습 단계를 설정하였다. 학습자의 오류 유형은 어휘, 표현, 조사, 철자, 어미, 시제, 존대, 종결, 연결, 전성, 어순으로 분류하였다. 모든 급에서 가장 많이 나타나는 오류 유형은 어휘, 조사, 철자, 어미 오류였다. 조사 오류율은 급이 올라갈수록 감소하는 경향을 보였으나, 중국어권과 영어권 학습자는 고급에서도 조사 생략의 오류가 많이 발견되었다. 철자 오류는 모든 급에서 영어권 학습자의 오류율이 가장 높았으며, 어미 오류는 모든 언어권과 모든 급에서 연결 어미 오류율이 가장 많이 높게 나타났다. 급이 올라갈수록 오류율은 감소하는 경향을 보였으며, 각 학습 단계에서 오류에 가장 큰 영향을 미치는 변인은 모국어로 나타났다. 언어권별 오류율의 차이는 1급과 5급에서 가장 크게 나타났다.

Kim analyzed errors in writing assignments and written tests of Korean language learners whose native languages were English, Chinese, Japanese and Russian. The researcher analyzed 18,208 word units containing errors (from a total of 103,771 word units). Possible variables affecting error were first language, gender, and proficiency level. Error types were classified into lexicon, expressions, particles, spelling, suffix, tense, honorifics, sentence final endings, conjunctive endings, and conversion endings. Results (using a statistical measure of difference) showed the most common errors across proficiency levels were lexical, particle, spelling, and ending errors. Error rates with conjunctive endings were most frequent, across native language groups as well as across proficiency levels. The rate of particle errors appeared to decrease at the upper proficiency levels. The rate of particle omission errors was highest in Chinese and English speaking learners. The rate of spelling errors was higher in English speaking learners. The influence of the first language on errors was higher in level 1 (beginning) and level 5 (advanced).

이 연구는 한국어 학습자 말뭉치 가운데 교포를 제외한 영어권 학습자의 어휘 오류 중에서 대치 오률를 중점적으로 분석하였다. 오류의 원인으로는 영어와 한국어의 차이, 모국어인 영어의 전이, 함축적인 의미에 대한 이해 부족이 언급되었다. 유의어, 속담, 한자 성어, 연어의 하위 항목별로 오류 예문을 제시, 분석하고 효과적인 교육 방안을 제안하였다. 이 연구에서 각 하위 항목별 오류의 유형에 따른 빈도수는 제시되지 않았다.

Hong analyzed vocabulary errors of English-speaking learners of Korean using a Korean L2 corpus. The researcher focused on substitution errors and classified those errors into synonyms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases with Chinese characters, and collocations. Error frequency for each classification was not presented. Causes of error included differences between English and Korean, transfer from English to Korean, and an insufficient understanding of implicit meaning. The researcher analyzed exemplary errors and proposed reconstructed forms as well as effective teaching methods.

Choi and Lantolf investigated how thinking-for-speaking (TFS) patterns are represented differently by L2 Korean and L2 English speakers. According to Slobin's (2003) TFS hypothesis, when speakers verbally encode events and states in the world, the thinking process in speaking is generated through language. The present study employed McNeill's growth point (GP) hypothesis, which states that gestures depict events in the world. While S-languages (satellite-framed languages) encode the path of event on particle or prepositional phrases and manner on verbs, V-languages (verb-framed languages) encode path on verbs and express manner with gestures or through lexical items. The researchers predicted that typological differences between English, a S-language and Korean, a V-language might result in differences in L2 learners' TFS patterns. Two Korean L2 (English L1) speakers, two English L2 (Korean L1) speakers and five adult monolingual speaker of Korean participated in the study. All bilingual participants had advanced proficiency in L2. The participants were asked to describe an animated cartoon, and their gestures depicting motion events were analyzed. Results showed that highly proficient L2 speakers seemed to retain their L1 TFS patterns when manner of motion was salient; Korean L2 speakers tended to synchronize path-only gestures with particle or prepositional phrases; English L2 speakers tend to synchronize path-only gestures with path verbs. The researchers noted that Korean L2 speakers had difficulty in expressing native-like path of motion due to their limited knowledge of Korean grammar.

Kim investigated whether collaborative tasks are beneficial to learning Korean L2 vocabulary. The participants were 32 Korean as a second language (KSL) learners, 22 women and 10 men attending the same university in Korea. They were given a pretest, a dictogloss task, and two post-tests over the course of three weeks. The participants listened to a text three times; those in a collaborative condition reconstructed the text with a partner by writing what they had listened to, while those in an individual condition reconstructed the text individually. Immediate and delayed post-tests of vocabulary were completed. Though the number of the language-related episodes (LREs), in which the meaning, pronunciation or spelling of lexical items were called into question was similar in both conditions, the learners in the collaborative condition resolved more LREs than those in the individual condiiton and also showed better outcomes on vocabulary post-tests.

이 연구는 현지 프로그램에 참여한 미국정부지원 한국전문가 양성과정 프로그램의 영어권 고급 학습자들의 연어 사용 양상을 분석하였다. 5명의 비교포 학생들이(A그룹) 현지 프로그램을 시작했을 때와 마쳤을 때의 Mock OPI 결과를 분석하였고, 10명의 교포 학생들을(B그룹) 상대로 연어 사용과 이해도를 측정하기 위한 어휘 평가를 실시하여 오류 유형을 분류하였다. A그룹(비교포 학생들)은 목적어-서술어 관계의 연어를 가장 빈번하게 사용하였고, B그룹(교포 학생들)은 연어 생산보다 연어 이해 평가 결과가 더 좋았으며 연어의 핵심이 되는 명사의 의미에만 초점을 두어 정확한 연어 생산과 이해에 어려움을 겼었다. 연구 결과에 대한 통계는 제시되지 않았다.

Chang investigated collocations used by advanced level English-speaking Korean L2 learners participating in an on-site Language Flagship Program in Korea. The researchers analyzed errors in the Mock OPI interviews of five non-heritage learners at the beginning and the end of the on-site program. In addition, ten heritage learners were given two tests that measured production and comprehension of collocations; their errors were also analyzed. The non-heritage learners used object-predicate collocations most frequently (no statistical comparisons were made however). The heritage learners seemed to obtain better comprehension test scores than production test scores, and showed a tendency to focus only on nouns in collocations where the noun carries the core meaning of a collocation.

Interaction and pragmatics

Byon investigated the interlanguage features of English speaking learners of Korean L2 in requests. A written form of the Discourse Completion Task was used to collect the data. 50 adult female KFL learners at an American university were asked to write their responses in 12 requesting situations. The same questionnaires were given to fifty Korean native speakers as well as fifty female English native speakers for baseline intra-cultural norms in data analysis. Results showed that the KFL learners did not use subject honorifics and appropriate speech levels and address terms in the given situations. KFL learners' L1 transfer manifested in choice of lexical, phrasal, and sentential items, and they used more personal pronouns than the Korean native speakers. Also, KFL learners produced longer requests than the Korean native speakers. The researcher recommends that KFL educators consider contextual pragmatic constraints and KFL textbook dialogues be designed to reflect Korean cultural features.

Lee examined the impact of task complexity on oral production based on Robinson's (2001) claims that more complex tasks elicit less fluent, but more accurate and more complex L2 oral production. The researcher hypothesized that there would be no difference in the complexity of oral production related to task complexity but that production complexity would be related to the number of communication units in the given contexts, and that the accuracy of oral production could be measured by an error-free communication units ratio. The participants were 82 learners of Korean in the Defense Language Institute in Monterey. Two picture description tasks were used and three versions of each task were used at different levels of task complexity, where increased complexity was operationalized as increase in number of components depicted (e.g. 2 cars vs. 5 cars). Results showed that there was no difference in the complexity of oral production on the three versions of the task and there was little difference in accuracy in learner language across the three versions of both tasks.

Kim and McDonough investigated the linguistic forms and patterns that Korean as a second language (KSL) learners showed in oral interaction with an intermediate proficiency interlocutor and with an advanced proficiency interlocutor. Twenty-four adult KSL learners from various countries attending the same university participated in a two-week long experiment. Two practice sessions and one experiment sessions were conducted during regular Korean classes. After listening to a Korean script, the participants were asked to reconstruct a listening text and complete a questionnaire about their collaborative work with a partner. Results showed that learners resolved grammatical language related episodes (LREs) more accurately when paired with advanced interlocutors than with intermediate interlocutors, but that learners tended to be more collaborative with intermediate interlocutors than with advanced interlocutors. The researchers noted that the learners' focus on pronunciation and spelling in lexical LREs and on particles in grammatical LREs might be related to the characteristics of Korean.

이 연구는 일상생활 속에서 한국어를 습득하고 있는 여성결혼이민자의 언어 사용을 분석한 것이다. 참여자는 일본어, 중국어, 베트남어를 모어로 하는 각 3명씩 9명의 결혼 이주 여성들로 한국 거주 기간은 3-15년이었다. 베트남-일본-중국을 1개 조로 편성하여 한 달에 한 번씩 모여서 교통 제도, 교육 제도, 명절, 한국의 기부 문화, 남녀차별 등의 주제에 대해 2-30분 정도 토론하는 방식으로 포커스 그룹 연구를 진행하였으며, 10회까지 진행하였다. 결혼이민자의 경우 전반적으로 발음의 정확성이 낮았으며, 조각문의 발화가 빈번하게 나타났다. 조사의 오류로는 목적격 조사를 주격 조사로 대치하는 것과 '-에'와 '-에서'를 잘못 쓰는 경우가 많이 나타났다. 연구 결과에 대한 통계는 제시되지 않았으며, 어휘와 통사 오류에서 일본어 화자에 대한 분석만이 제시되었다.

The language use of immigrant women married to Koreans whose native languages are Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese were presented. A total of 9 women (3 from each language group) were recruited; all had lived in Korea for 3-15 years. Three focus groups were formed with speakers from different language groups; these met about 30 minutes once a month to discuss topics like education system, transportation, Korean holidays, donation culture, gender discrimination. Group discussion sessions were carried out for 10 months. Results showed the participants frequently used sentence fragments, and their pronunciation accuracy was low. Substitution errors with particles occurred frequently. Only the vocabulary and syntactic errors of Japanese speakers was presented.

이 연구는 무작위로 추출된 고급 한국어 학습자들의 수업 발표 15건에 나타난 화용적 문제 유형을 질적 연구 방법과 빈도 분석을 통하여 조사하였다. 발표자들의 국적은 중국 10명, 일본 2명, 캐나다 1명, 호주 1명, 재미교포 1명이었다.학습자들은 격식적인 상황에 맞는 종결어미와 대용어 대신 일상 대화에서 사용하는 종결어미 '-요'와 '그거,' '이거' 등 일상적인 대화 표현을 많이 사용하였다. 학습자들은 발표 시작과 마무리, 질문 요청 등의 정형화된 표현들을 잘 사용하지 못하였다. 또한, 한국어 모어 화자 3명과 학습자 3명의 평균 10분 동안의 발표를 비교했을 때, 학습자들이 모어 화자에 비해 담화표지를 3배 정도 많이 발화하였다. 모어 화자들은 청자 중심으로 발화한 반면, 학습자들은 화자 중심으로 발화하는 경향을 보였다. 사회문화적인 측면에서는, 일본과 영어권 학습자는 발표 중간에 개인적 감정을 발화한 경우가 나타났다. 반면, 중국어권 학습자의 경우 일반적으로 개인적인 감정이나 상황을 드러내지 않았다. 일반적으로 한국에서의 발표 상황도 형식적이고 엄격하다는 인식이 지배적이어서 발표할 때 개인적 감정이나 상황을 드러내는 경우가 드물기 때문에, 연구자들은 학습자들에게 화용적으로 적절한 말하기 교육을 할 필요가 있음을 지적하였다.

Lee investigated pragmatic problems in advanced Korean language learners' presentation speeches. Fifteen presentation speeches produced in Korean language classes were randomly selected; the presenters' nationalities were: 10 Chinese, 2 Japanese, 1 Canadian, 1 Autralian, and 1 Korean-American. Qualitative methods and frequency analysis showed that the learners mostly used the informal sentence ending '-yo' and colloquial anaphora such as 'geugeo (that thing)' or 'igeo (this thing)' instead of formal sentence endings and anaphora. The speakers did not use formulaic expressions for opening and ending remarks or for asking questions of the audience. In analyzing discourse markers, three native speakers' 10-minute-long presentation speeches were compared with those of three learners. The learners produced three times as many discourse markers as the native speakers. The learners from Japan or English-speaking countries expressed their personal emotions, whereas the Chinese learners usually did not. In general, Korean native speakers rarely express their personal emotions or situations in presentation speeches because the presentation situation is conventionally conceived as formal and rigid. The researchers conclude that pragmatically appropriate Korean L2 speaking instruction is needed.

Phonology

Kim investigated how well American-English-speaking learners perceive and produce two allophonic variants of the Korean /l/: syllable-final [l] and syllable-initial [ɾ]. For a perception test, 14 KSL learners in an American university were asked to transcribe a total of 31 Korean words using English orthography after listening to each word three times; these were 21 words containing /l/ in different positions and 10 distracter words without /l/ sounds. Results showed that most learners were able to perceive the two allophonic variants differently by transcribing the syllable-final variant [l] as l and the syllable-initial variant [ɾ] as either r or d. For the production test, 5 KSL learners in the same university were asked to read twice the same list of words used in the perception test. The production test was conducted five weeks after the perception test, and two native Korean speakers evaluated the learners' speech production. The most frequent errors that the learners made in the production test were substituting dark [ɬ] for syllable final light [l], non-liaison/syllabification errors, and producing [ɹ] for syllable-initial [ɾ]. The researcher concluded that although most American-English-speaking participants were able to perceive the difference between the two variants of Korean /l/, they had difficulty in producing the allophones of Korean /l/ even though American English has a flap sound [ɾ]. However, no statistical measure of significance was used in this study.

Shin investigated prosodic differences in the Korean learner language of non-heritage and heritage learners who had completed one year of beginning Korean courses at an American university. In a production test, four English-speaking female students (2 heritage learners and 2 non-heritage learners) were asked to read three passages twice. The given texts were about Korean history (dialogue), scheduling a doctor's appointment (dialogue), and food (prose). Their readings were recorded and analyzed using Praat, a software program for phonetic analysis. Results showed the Korean-heritage learners produced native-like AP (accentual phrase) tone patterns, THLH. (T becomes a H(high) tone when a syllable-initial segment is aspirated or tensed or a L(low) tone in other environments.) In contrast, the non-heritage learners sometimes failed to produce H tones in obligatory position. In a perception test, 12 Korean native speakers listened to learner language tone patterns collected in the production test and were asked to judge whether these were produced by native Koreans. Although there were some complications, results generally showed that listeners identified those patterns produced by Korean heritage learners as being produced by Korean native learners (a statistical measure of significance was used). Results indicate that Korean-heritage learners produced basic tonal patterns more correctly than non-heritage learners, and that Korean native speakers use suprasegmental information to judge nativeness.

English-speaking learners' Korean vowel length distinctions were examined in this study. Twelve non-heritage learners (6 males and 6 females) enrolled in an intermediate Korean course at an American university were asked to read a list of words and sentences. 18 words (13 nouns, 2 adjectives, and 3 verbs) were selected as stimuli, but not all words were minimal pairs. Nouns were listed in isolation, and adjectives and verbs were given in sentences. The researchers predicted that English speakers would not distinguish Korean vowel length in their production, because vowel identity and stress patterns in English play a role in distinguishing vowel length while Korean vowel length has phonemic status. Results showed that English-speaking adult KFL learners had difficulty in distinguishing vowel length in their speech. Instead, they varied vowel length according to the number of syllables in words, i.e. shorter duration for greater number of syllable and longer duration for smaller number of syllables. This pattern is likely to be perceived as accented speech by native speakers.

이 연구는 어중자음군(C1VC2C3V)에서 한국어의 파열음 /ㅂ/, /ㄷ/, /ㄱ/이 선행자음으로 나타날 때 한국어 모어 화자와 한국어 학습자의 인지의 차이를 분석하였다. 어중자음군의 5가지 후행 자음에 따라 15개의 최소대립쌍 단어를 선정하고 어중폐쇄지속시간 5 단계에 따라 피실험자에게 총 75개의 문장을 들려주고, 들리는 파열음을 표시하도록 하였다. 한국어 모어 화자 20명과 서울의 대학에서 한국어를 학습하고 있는 미국영어, 중국어, 일본어 모어 화자 24명(각 언어별로 초급 4명, 고급 4명)이 실험에 참여하였다. 한국어 모어 화자의 경우, 종성 /ㄷ/의 정답률이 높았고, 종성 /ㄱ/은 폐쇄지속시간이 짧을수록 /ㄷ/로, 길수록 /ㅂ/로 인식하는 경향이 나타났다. 영어권 학습자는 폐쇄지속 시간이 길수록 종성 /ㄱ/과 /ㅂ/의 정답률이 높았고 고급 학습자는 모어 화자와 비슷한 종성 인지도를 보였다. 일본어권 초급 학습자는 대체로 다른 언어권보다 높은 정답률을 보였으나, 폐쇄지속시간 증감에 민감하게 반응하지 않았고 초급과 고급의 정답률 차이가 크지 않았다. 중국어권 초급 학습자는 타언어권에 비해 정답률이 낮았고, 고급 학습자는 폐쇄지속시간이 길수록 종성 /ㅂ/의 정답률이 높았다. 실험 결과에 대한 통계는 제시되지 않았다.

Cho investigated differences in ability to recognize three plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ in intersyllabic gemination in Korean, among 24 KSL adult learners whose native languages were American English, Chinese, and Japanese, and 20 Korean native speakers. In each native language group, 4 beginning learners and 4 advanced learners were identified. 15 minimal pairs including intersyllabic germination were selected as experimental items, and five variations were created for each item depending on the length of closure duration timing. Participants were asked to identify a consonant after listening to a sentence containing the target item in gemination. A total of 75 sentences were given. A statistical measure of significance was not used in this study. Results showed that Korean native speakers provided correct answers for /t/, and they perceived /k/ as /t/ when its closure duration timing became longer or as /p/ when its closure duration timing became shorter. Results for learners of Korean differed according to native language. English-speaking learners of Korean recognized /k/ and /p/ more correctly as their closure duration timing became longer. Advanced English-speaking learners of Korean showed a similar recognition pattern to that of native Korean speakers. Japanese-speaking beginning learners of Korean attained a relatively high overall correct response rate, but they did not sensitively respond to closure duration timing. The gap between beginning and advanced Korean proficiency levels was not wide for Japanese-speaking learners. Chinese-speaking beginning learners of Korean showed a low rate of correct answers compared to the other native language groups, and advanced learners of Korean responded more correctly as closure duration timing of /p/ became longer.